QUESTION 3: A RESEARCH ON THE EFFECTS OF GLOBALISATION ON CULTURE AND APPROACHES TO EDUCATION.
by Augastine Ndeti
Rongo University
Question 3: A Research on the Effects of Globalisation on Culture and on Approaches To Education.
Introduction
Globalisation is a phenomenon that is transforming the world as we know it. The term ‘globalisation’ refers to a process of interconnection between societies and cultures across the world. Technological advances, the liberalisation of markets, and increased international trade and investment drive this process. Education is a universal human right, and the United Nations have recognised it as an essential component of human development and economic growth. It is an important feature of a nation’s culture and critical in shaping individuals’ values, attitudes, and beliefs. Education systems across the world are not only diverse in terms of content, structure, and approach but also in terms of the way education is delivered and managed. Globalisation has had a significant impact on the culture of a nation, including its education system. It has brought about increased competition among educational institutions and increased access to educational materials and resources. Globalisation has also had an effect on the way education is delivered. The rise of the internet and digital technology has made it easier to access educational materials and resources and has made it easier for students to study remotely. This has resulted in an increased demand for online courses and distance learning programs, which have enabled students to gain access to educational resources regardless of their geographical location. The effects of globalisation have also been felt in how education is managed. Many countries have adopted policies and regulations that encourage cross-border collaboration between educational institutions, and many have also introduced reforms aimed at improving the quality of education. These reforms include moving towards the standardisation of curricula and assessments and introducing new technologies for teaching and learning. This essay will examine the effects of globalisation on culture and education, discussing the importance of this issue, the problems and challenges identified in recent research and policy, the responses to these problems and challenges, and the priorities for future research, practice, or policy.
a. The Importance Of This Issue
In the current global environment, it is essential to explore the effects of globalisation on culture and approaches to education because globalisation has profoundly affected the structure of education systems around the world. This is particularly important in light of the fact that education is essential for achieving social justice and equitable access to opportunities (Arnhold and Bassett, 2021). Thus, it is essential to gain a better understanding of the effects of globalisation on culture and education to ensure that education systems are able to meet the needs of all students and provide them with the knowledge and skills necessary for success in the 21st century. By exploring the effects of globalisation on culture and education, it is possible to understand better the challenges and opportunities presented by these changes. In turn, this can help to inform the development of educational policies and practices that are both equitable and effective in meeting the needs of all students (Ball, 2017). Thus, a better understanding of the effects of globalisation on culture and education can help ensure that education systems can provide all students with the knowledge, skills, and attitudes necessary for success in the 21st century (Adams, 2014).
Studying the effects of globalisation on culture and education provides insight into how educational systems respond to the changing world. To understand the purpose of education and its role in wider society, it is important to understand the impact of globalisation. Globalisation has created a more interconnected world, resulting in increased cultural exchange and interdependence. This has led to educational system changes as schools and universities strive to provide students with the skills and knowledge necessary to succeed in the globalised world. For example, in the U.K., the introduction of the English Baccalaureate (EBacc) has been aimed at improving the quality of education and providing students with the skills required to succeed in a globalised economy (Gorard, 2010). The curriculum has increased emphasis on international relations and global citizenship. Similarly, in Finland, an increased focus on professional learning communities has been developed to provide teachers with the necessary skills to engage in international collaboration and promote global competencies among students (Webb et al., 2009). By studying the effects of globalisation on culture and education, we can better understand how educational systems are adapting to the changing world and how to prepare students best to thrive in the globalised economy.
Globalisation has had a profound effect on the educational system across the world, especially in the last few decades. The trend of globalisation has allowed for a greater appreciation of the diversity of educational approaches worldwide. This has been encouraged by the increased mobility of people, goods, and services across countries. For example, the presence of international students in universities has caused a shift towards student-centered teaching approaches and a more multicultural curriculum (Federkeil, 2008). Furthermore, this has increased emphasis on global perspectives in higher education, as seen in the rise of interdisciplinary courses, such as international relations, which look at the world from a global perspective (Ball, 2013). Through this greater appreciation of the diversity of educational approaches, the effects of globalisation on culture and approaches to education can be better understood. This understanding can benefit the wider society, as it can help create a more inclusive and equitable global education system that can benefit everyone. In addition, globalisation has enabled the emergence of new educational philosophies, such as constructivism, which emphasise the importance of learners constructing their knowledge (Tikly, 2007). This has enabled students to develop a more holistic understanding of the world and their place within it and appreciate the interconnectedness of all knowledge better. Furthermore, globalisation has enabled a greater appreciation of the role of culture in education. For example, the emergence of global education initiatives, such as the Global Education Network, has enabled educators to explore different cultures and ways of knowing and develop a greater appreciation of the importance of cultural identity and diversity in education (Myers, 2006). In this way, globalisation has enabled a more comprehensive approach to education, enabling educators better to understand the role of education in wider society.
Globalisation has had a significant impact on cultures and approaches to education. The study of these effects is important for understanding the role of education in providing access to opportunity and social mobility. For example, the research of Altbach, Reisberg, and Rumbley (2009) has highlighted the emergence of a ‘global higher education market,’ where the influence of international rankings, competition for foreign students, and the commodification of knowledge has become increasingly important. This has impacted the role of education in providing access to opportunity and creating social mobility, particularly in developing countries, where access to higher education is often limited. Bowe, Ball, and Gold (1992) explore how political, economic, and social forces shape education policies and how they can be used to advance social justice and promote access to opportunity. Zeichner and Liston (2013) also discuss the importance of reflective teaching to ensure that educational policies are implemented in a way that is beneficial to students and society. Adams (2014) further highlights the importance of education in promoting social justice and argues that educational policies should be designed to ensure equal access to opportunity for all members of society. This research shows the importance of studying the effects of globalisation on culture and education to understand the role of education in providing access to opportunity, promoting social justice, and creating social mobility.
b. Problems And Challenges Identified In Recent Research And Policy On This Issue
Recent research and policy on globalisation and its effects on culture and education have identified the loss of traditional cultures and indigenous languages as a major challenge. According to Zajda (2021), one of the major problems of globalisation on culture is the loss of traditional cultures and indigenous languages due to the spread of Western culture. This is especially evident in countries where globalisation has been particularly rapid, such as the United States, where many Native American languages have become endangered or extinct due to the influx of cultural practices from the West. The spread of Western culture has also seen the decline of traditional values and customs as Western norms and values increasingly replace local cultures. This issue of cultural loss is further compounded by globalisation’s effect on education, as highlighted by Antoninis et al. (2020). The authors argue that globalisation has led to an increased emphasis on homogenised curricula, which often neglect teaching traditional cultures and languages. This significantly impacts the communities where these cultures and languages are found, as the transmission of traditional knowledge and values is hindered. Salmi and D’Addio (2021) argue that educational policies should be designed to promote the teaching of traditional cultures and languages to foster a more inclusive education system.
Hart, C.S. (2019) argues that the influence of globalisation has caused individuals to feel pressured to conform to Western ideals and values, leading to a loss of self-identity and cultural pride. He cites examples of how the increasing presence of Western values in education and media can dilute cultural identity and cause individuals to feel alienated from their own culture. He further suggests that this can significantly impact a person’s sense of belonging and self-confidence, leading to an increased sense of inequality and a feeling of powerlessness. As Shain (2016) points out, education systems have a responsibility to ensure that they do not perpetuate existing inequalities and must instead ‘compensate for society’ to ensure that all individuals have equal opportunities. However, due to globalisation and a lack of resources in many nations, this is proving difficult to achieve, resulting in a rising divide between those with and without access to education. This ultimately leads to decreased cultural identity and pride, as individuals are encouraged to adopt Western values and ideals. Arnhold and Bassett (2021) further discuss the challenges of globalisation and its effects on education. They argue that globalisation creates a need for increased international mobility and can create a clash between different cultures and values, leading to a lack of understanding of cultural norms and values. This can lead to increased inequality, as those from different cultures may have different access to education opportunities, leading to a lack of opportunity for some. Furthermore, globalisation can create a sense of competition between countries, leading to a focus on economic growth and neglect of social and educational needs. Finally, they suggest that globalisation can lead to the development of a homogenous global culture, leading to a lack of appreciation for cultural diversity.
The research by Toropova, Myrberg and Johansson (2021) highlights the homogenisation of culture as one of the issues of globalisation. This has resulted in a loss of diversity as countries and cultures become more interconnected and intertwined. The authors argue that the globalisation of culture has led to a “flattening” culture, as people worldwide adopt similar ideologies and cultural practices. This flattening of culture diminishes the uniqueness and richness of a particular culture as a more homogenous culture increasingly replaces it. When cultures become homogenised, individuals may lack a sense of belonging and identity, leading to decreased job satisfaction and motivation (Toropova et al., 2021). Furthermore, the homogenisation of culture can lead to a narrowing of educational approaches, with a focus on rote learning and a lack of emphasis on creativity and critical thinking. This can limit the development of skills necessary for an increasingly globalised and interconnected world, such as problem-solving and collaboration. As such, it is important to recognise the potential for cultural homogenisation and to address this issue in recent research and policy on globalisation and education. Additionally, Ball (2017) argues that globalisation has led to an increase in the prevalence of international standards for education, which can result in a loss of the unique cultural identity of any given area or region. He argues that the internationalization of education can lead to a “one-size-fits-all” approach, in which education systems and practices are standardised across nations. This standardisation deprives nations of the opportunity to develop a unique educational system that reflects their cultural values and traditions. Furthermore, this approach to education can be detrimental to students’ educational attainment, as it fails to consider the specific needs of different student populations.
In recent research and policy, another problem and challenge identified concerning globalisation and culture is the impact of globalisation on migration and displacement. This has been highlighted in Bassett’s (2022) article ‘STEERing into the Swerve: Adjusting to the Challenges and Opportunities Forced by COVID-19’, which explores the broader context of globalisation and its implications for displacement. Specifically, Bassett (2022) argues that globalisation has disrupted traditional cultural practices and identities due to the displacement of people from their traditional homes. This has led to a fragmentation of cultural continuity and identity for displaced communities, making it difficult for them to remain connected to their traditional cultural practices. Migration and displacement can bring various challenges and problems, such as a sense of disconnection and alienation for those who are pushed out of their communities. This can lead to a loss of cultural continuity and identity, as displacement often results in a lack of access to the resources, networks, and cultural practices important to maintaining a sense of belonging and identity. Moreover, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) (2016) highlights in the Global Education Monitoring Report Summary 2016: Education for People and Planet: Creating Sustainable Futures for All the importance of ensuring cultural continuity and identity for those affected by displacement. UNESCO (2016) argues that to achieve a sense of cultural continuity and identity, it is necessary to provide education based on a mutual understanding between local and global contexts. This could include the use of multi-disciplinary approaches to education, the inclusion of cultural values and knowledge in the curriculum, and the promotion of intercultural dialogue. Such approaches are essential to ensure that the education of displaced populations is effective and respectful of cultural identity and continuity.
Globalisation has also impacted the distribution of resources and wealth, leading to a lack of access to education and cultural opportunities for disadvantaged communities. This has been identified in recent research and policy as one of the many issues associated with globalisation (Ball, 2021). Wealthy nations are able to accumulate wealth through globalisation, while poorer nations remain in a state of poverty and inequality (Webb et al., 2009). This has led to decreased access to education and cultural opportunities for disadvantaged communities, as resources are not accessible to them. It can be attributed to the expanding influence of multinational companies, the subsequent increase in economic inequality, and the unequal global distribution of resources. As a result, these communities are deprived of the necessary resources to support quality education, cultural access, and other personal and professional development opportunities. The 2020 Global Education Monitoring Report on Inclusion (Antoninis et al., 2020) further highlights the impact of globalisation on education and culture, focusing on how unequal access to education and cultural opportunities can result in a lack of educational opportunities for disadvantaged communities. It also analyses the inequality in school quality, the challenge of meeting educational needs in a globalised world, and the need for better quality assurance systems in higher education. Additionally, research conducted by Webb et al. (2009) shows that globalisation has a negative impact on teacher well-being, with teachers in countries such as England and Finland struggling to keep up with the ever-changing demands of the globalised education system.
c. Some Of The Responses To These Problems And Challenges Proposed In Current Research And Policy On This Issue.
In response to the challenges posed by globalisation on culture and education, one approach proposed in current research and policy is to strengthen the protection of cultural and linguistic heritage through international agreements and U.N. conventions. For example, in 2003, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) implemented the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage convention, which seeks to protect traditions, customs, practices, and expressions of culture (UNESCO, 2016). This convention was reinforced by U.N. General Assembly Resolution 68/4 in 2013, encouraging countries to take protective measures for their intangible cultural heritage (Ball, 2013). This can help to protect cultures, languages, and customs that might be threatened due to globalisation. Additionally, the UNESCO Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions of 2005 aims to ensure that countries can protect their cultural heritage and identity. This convention enables countries to ensure that they can continue to promote their culture, despite increased global competition. For example, Vietnam has implemented several measures to promote its culture, such as encouraging the use of the Vietnamese language in education and organising cultural festivals to promote traditional Vietnamese practices and customs (Vu et al., 2021). These measures aim to ensure that Vietnam’s culture is not lost due to globalisation and that it is celebrated and appreciated. Mamasoliyevich (2021) also argues that developing the information culture of young people is necessary to protect their cultural and linguistic heritage. This involves teaching young people about their own culture and that of other countries. It also involves teaching them about the importance of cultural diversity and the need to respect different cultures and languages. By doing this, young people can be taught to appreciate and protect cultural and linguistic heritage and understand globalization’s effects.
Another response proposed in recent research and policy is the adoption of multicultural education curricula. Multicultural education is an approach to teaching that recognises and values the diverse cultures, languages, and religions of students (Hong, 2020). It seeks to foster respect for diversity, promote intercultural understanding and help students to feel included and appreciated in school (Ozga, 2021). For example, in Australia, some schools have implemented multicultural education curricula, which include students engaging in cultural exchange activities and learning about the history and customs of different cultures (Hong, 2020). This has enabled students to gain a greater understanding and appreciation of different cultures and has helped to create a more inclusive and harmonious learning environment. Other examples of multicultural education curricula include the inclusion of stories, music, and art from different cultures in teaching. This can help students to gain further knowledge and understanding of different cultures, as well as an appreciation for the contributions that diverse cultures have made to our society (Ozga, 2021). Schools can also provide training and support to teachers to ensure they can effectively deliver multicultural education curricula (Hong, 2020). This can include resources that guide how to create a safe and respectful learning environment and resources that outline strategies for helping to promote intercultural understanding and respect.
The encouragement of the exchange of cultural knowledge and practices across borders and in different educational contexts is yet another response proposed. By doing this, it is hoped that students and educators alike can better appreciate their peers’ different cultures and practices while also developing an understanding of how different cultures may interact and collaborate in the globalising world. This has been proposed in recent research and policy to promote a better understanding of different cultures and ensure that all students have access to a diverse range of educational opportunities, regardless of their social and cultural backgrounds (Veugelers, 2021). For example, in countries such as the United States, the International Baccalaureate (I.B.) program has been developed to promote international understanding among students and provide a platform for intercultural dialogue. This program provides an educational curriculum for students from different cultures and nationalities, allowing them to learn about different cultures and discuss issues from different perspectives (Veugelers, 2021). Research has also suggested that developing 21st-century skills can promote the exchange of cultural knowledge and practices across borders and in different educational contexts (Joynes, Rossignoli, and Amonoo-Kuofi, 2019). This includes the development of skills such as communication, creativity, critical thinking, collaboration, and problem-solving. These skills can help students learn about different cultures and better understand the global implications of their own cultural practices. For instance, students can be encouraged to examine global cultural practices critically, understand the implications of globalisation on their own culture, and develop an appreciation for the diversity of global cultures (Joynes et al., 2019). Through developing such skills, students can be better prepared to engage in intercultural dialogue and contribute to a more culturally inclusive educational environment.
Subsequently, a good way to address the issue of the effects of globalisation on culture and approaches to education related to migration and displacement is by supporting policies that protect the rights of migrant and displaced communities. This can be done by the implementation of measures such as the U.N. Global Compact for Safe, Orderly, and Regular Migration, which seeks to protect the human rights of migrants by providing access to services such as health care and education and by reducing the vulnerability of migrants to exploitation and abuse (Bosio, 2020). Policies related to migration and displacement mustn’t be just put in place but also effectively implemented. For example, in the United States, the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) policy was put in place to protect the rights of young undocumented immigrants. Still, the policy has faced significant challenges in implementation, with many immigrants unable to access the policy’s benefits (Pittman et al., 2021). In addition to supporting policies that protect the rights of migrant and displaced communities, it is also important to address the challenges faced by these communities in terms of cultural adaptation. Cultural adaptation refers to adjusting to a new culture and its associated practices, values, and beliefs (Gong et al., 2021). For example, when New Zealand students study in China, they face the challenge of adapting to a new culture and language, which can be difficult and overwhelming (Gong et al., 2021). To address this challenge, it is important to support these students through resources such as language classes and cultural training programs (Gong et al., 2021). It is also important to create an inclusive and welcoming environment for these students to feel accepted and have a sense of belonging in their new environment.
Policies should be implemented to promote the equitable distribution of resources and wealth to reduce economic inequality. This has been supported by research from Gleeson et al. (2020), who conducted a comparative study of recent curriculum reforms in Australia and Ireland. They concluded that ‘policies which seek to reduce economic inequality – such as government-funded education and social welfare initiatives – can facilitate access to educational opportunities and cultural activities.’
Lastly, current research suggests that policies should be implemented to reduce economic inequality and provide more equitable access to resources and wealth. For example, the European Union has adopted the European Education Area, which aims to reduce disparities in educational opportunities and promote equal access to education for all. This includes initiatives such as the Erasmus+ program, which provides funding for students to study abroad, and the European Qualifications Framework, which sets a common standard for the recognition of qualifications across the E.U. In addition, to reduce economic inequality, governments have implemented policies that promote access to education and cultural activities for disadvantaged communities. For example, in Finland, the government has implemented an ‘intercultural dialogue’ approach to education which seeks to integrate diverse cultures into the learning environment (Lähdesmäki, Koistinen and Ylönen, 2020). This approach has successfully provided cultural activities and educational opportunities to disadvantaged communities, promoting social cohesion and harmony. Also, the Australian and Ireland governments have undertaken reforms to improve access to education for disadvantaged communities. For example, in Australia, reforms such as the National Curriculum Framework and the National Quality Framework have been implemented to improve access to education for Indigenous communities and other disadvantaged groups (Gleeson et al., 2020). Similarly, reforms such as the National Strategy for Equity and Excellence in Education have been implemented in Ireland to reduce educational inequality (Lähdesmäki et al., 2020). These reforms have focused on providing more equitable access to resources and wealth and creating opportunities for cultural exchange to reduce the effects of globalisation on culture and education.
d. Recommendations for future research
First, it is recommendable to investigate how technology and information networks have modified cultural exchange and consumption. Technology and the internet have drastically changed how culture is shared and experienced today. The digital world has enabled greater access to global cultures and has created a more interconnected world. For example, Blau et al. (2020) found that using technology-enhanced collaborative academic courses can greatly enhance digital literacy, self-regulation, and perceived learning. Such courses allow students to engage with cultures and perspectives from across the world and reflect upon their beliefs and values. Moreover, Szymkowiak et al. (2021) found that the internet and technology play an increasingly important role in the education of young people, allowing them to learn about various cultures, languages, and perspectives. For example, many students can now access educational material from around the world, enabling them to learn about different cultures and beliefs. Furthermore, social media platforms and apps such as Instagram, TikTok, and Snapchat have provided users access to various cultures and lifestyles, enabling them to connect with people worldwide. This increased access to global culture and perspectives has enabled a greater understanding and appreciation for diverse cultures and beliefs.
Secondly, future research should also focus on the effectiveness of intercultural education programs in promoting understanding and tolerance. Intercultural education programs can help students understand the diversity of cultures present in the world and how different cultures interact with each other. Research into the effectiveness of such programs can help to inform policy and practice in education, as well as help shape the way teachers interact with students of different cultural backgrounds. For example, Parkhouse et al. (2019) examined the effectiveness of a professional development program in a Canadian university that aimed to increase intercultural understanding and sensitivity among teachers. The findings of their research showed that the program had a positive impact on the attitudes of teachers towards intercultural understanding, as well as on their teaching practices. Similarly, Klein and Wikan (2019) studied the impact of international practice programs on students’ understanding of global citizenship. They found that such programs can significantly impact students’ attitudes and understanding of global citizenship and the importance of intercultural understanding and tolerance. These studies show the potential for intercultural education programs to positively impact students’ understanding of the world and the importance of further research into their effectiveness.
Analysis of the media’s influence on cultural assumptions and stereotypes should also be a priority of future study. Media is a powerful tool to shape public opinion and shape cultural perceptions. Whether through news reports, television programmes, or social media, the media can contribute to the formation of stereotypes. This can be seen in the research by Cooper et al. (2021), which found that media depictions of Black fathers in American films and television significantly impacted how The public perceived black fathers. This research highlights how media has the power to shape and reinforce existing stereotypes while also creating new ones. Ng (2021) further explored this concept by analysing a U.S. and U.K. media sources database. The study found that age stereotypes were pervasive across all media sources, with older adults being portrayed as slower and less able to keep up with modern technology and trends. This research provides insight into how media can shape perceptions of different age groups, and how these stereotypes can influence how people interact. Therefore, future research needs to explore the role of media in shaping cultural perceptions and creating stereotypes.
Finally, researchers should investigate the relationship between globalisation and migration and their impacts on the culture of both sending and receiving countries. This research can help to identify how globalisation affects the culture of a given society and how to best adapt to the changing environment. For example, Segal (2019) investigated the impact of globalisation on the culture of African countries and found that globalisation has resulted in increased migration in the region, creating a “cultural exchange” between the sending and receiving countries. This has resulted in a “hybrid” culture, with each country contributing elements of its culture to the mix. It has also allowed for the development of new practices, such as sharing language, food, and music. Additionally, globalisation has also affected the educational systems in these countries, as educational systems must adapt to the new cultural environment and the changing needs of students. Zeitz and Leblang (2021) studied the impact of migration on the global banking sector. They found that migrants have become an important part of the global economy, helping to facilitate the growth of the sector. This research highlights the importance of migration in driving globalisation and suggests that the education sector must be prepared to meet the needs of migrants to benefit from the opportunities presented by globalisation.
Conclusion
In conclusion, globalisation has significantly impacted both culture and education. Through the increased interconnectivity of the world, culture has been transformed, and education systems have had to adapt to meet the needs of a constantly changing and diversifying global population. As a result, education systems have had to adopt a more inclusive approach to ensure that all students have access to quality education regardless of their cultural and socio-economic backgrounds. Additionally, globalisation has also brought about a greater emphasis on the development of skills such as communication, critical thinking and problem-solving, as well as the need to foster intercultural understanding and collaboration. Concerning education, globalisation has led to a greater emphasis on Western-based approaches to learning. This has resulted in a more uniform approach to education, with a greater focus on standardized testing and rote learning and memorization. Furthermore, there has been a shift away from traditional teaching methods, such as storytelling and experiential learning, which rely on local knowledge and values. In many cases, this has resulted in a less holistic approach to education and a reduced emphasis on critical thinking and creativity. In the future, it is clear that globalisation will continue to shape culture and education, and policymakers, educators, and researchers must continue to work together to ensure that education systems are properly equipped to meet the needs of an ever-changing global population. In particular, more research is needed to understand how globalization impacts culture and education and how policy and practice can be further developed to ensure that all students have equitable access to quality education. Additionally, it is also essential that more resources are allocated to develop the necessary skills among students, teachers, and administrators to support the implementation of these policies and practices. Only by doing so can we ensure that education systems can provide quality education for all.
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